hPPARγ (EC50 = 0.93 μM) mouse PPARγ (EC50 = 0.99 μM); hPPARδ (EC50 = 43 μM); hPPARα (EC50 = 100 μM); mouse PPARα (EC50 = 100 μM)

晚期糖基化终末产物 (AGE) 可导致 β 细胞坏死和 caspase-3 增加。吡格列酮（0.5 或 1 μM，5 天）可以完全防止这些影响，防止 AGE 损害胰腺 β 细胞系 HIT-T15 的活力。吡格列酮（1 μM，1 小时）可以降低 AGE 培养细胞中的 GSSG/GSH 比率，并增加低葡萄糖浓度触发的胰岛素分泌 [2]。

吡格列酮，每天口服一次，持续 14 天，剂量为 10 或 30 mg/kg，可改善糖尿病和胰岛素抵抗；这种作用在肝脏中可能依赖于脂质运载蛋白，但在骨骼肌中则不依赖[3]。吡格列酮（口服灌胃，10 mg/kg，每日一次，持续四周）可以缓解与之相关的血脂异常，提高血糖水平，并显着减轻体重（BW）和心脏肥厚[4]。

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噻唑烷二酮已被证明可以上调白色脂肪组织中的脂联素表达和血浆脂联素水平，这些上调被认为是噻唑烷二酮类诱导改善与肥胖相关的胰岛素抵抗的主要机制。为了验证这一假设，我们生成了具有C57B/6背景的脂联素敲除（脂肪-/-）ob/ob小鼠。服用10mg/kg吡格列酮14天后，肥胖/肥胖小鼠的胰岛素抵抗和糖尿病明显改善，血清脂联素水平显著上调。肥胖/肥胖小鼠胰岛素抵抗的改善归因于肝脏中葡萄糖产量的减少和AMP活化蛋白激酶的增加，而不是骨骼肌中葡萄糖摄取的增加。相比之下，肥胖/肥胖/肥胖小鼠的胰岛素抵抗和糖尿病没有改善。服用30mg/kg吡格列酮14天后，肥胖/肥胖小鼠的胰岛素抵抗和糖尿病再次显著改善，这不仅归因于肝脏葡萄糖产量的减少，还归因于骨骼肌葡萄糖摄取的增加。有趣的是，肥胖/肥胖/肥胖小鼠也表现出胰岛素抵抗和糖尿病的显著改善，这归因于骨骼肌葡萄糖摄取的增加，而不是肝脏葡萄糖产量的减少。10mg/kg吡格列酮后，ob/ob和肥胖-/-ob/ob小鼠的血清游离脂肪酸和甘油三酯水平以及脂肪细胞大小没有变化，但30mg/kg吡格列酮类后显著降低到类似程度。此外，10mg/kg吡格列酮后，ob/ob和肥胖-/-ob/ob小鼠脂肪组织中TNFα和抵抗素的表达没有变化，但30mg/kg吡格列酮类后有所下降。因此，吡格列酮诱导的胰岛素抵抗和糖尿病的改善可能在肝脏中以脂联素依赖的方式发生，在骨骼肌中独立发生。[3]

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吡格列酮已被证明对心血管结局有益。然而，人们对其对糖尿病肾病相关心脏重塑的影响知之甚少。因此，本研究旨在研究吡格列酮对糖尿病肾病大鼠模型心脏纤维化和肥大的影响。为此，将雄性Wistar白化大鼠随机分为4组（每组n=10）：正常（n）组、糖尿病（D）组、接受等量赋形剂（0.5%羧甲基纤维素）的糖尿病肾病（DN）组和口服吡格列酮（10mg/kg/D）治疗4周的糖尿病肾病组。肾次全切除加链脲佐菌素（STZ）注射诱导糖尿病肾病。结果显示，DN大鼠的心脏组织中胶原纤维过度沉积，同时心肌细胞明显肥大。这与心脏转化生长因子β1（TGF-β1）基因的显著上调有关。此外，DN大鼠心脏中基质金属蛋白酶2（MMP-2）的基因表达降低，而金属蛋白酶组织抑制剂2（TIMP-2）的基因表达式升高。此外，在DN大鼠中观察到脂质过氧化和心肌损伤加剧，其血清肌酸激酶MB水平显著升高。服用吡格列酮后，所有这些异常都得到了改善。我们的研究结果表明，心脏TGF-β1基因的上调以及MMP-2和TIMP-2表达的不平衡与糖尿病肾病相关的心脏纤维化密切相关。吡格列酮可以通过抑制TGF-β1的基因表达和调节MMP-2/TIMP-2系统来改善心脏重塑[4]。

吡格列酮是一种抗糖尿病药物，可以保持胰腺β细胞质量并改善其功能。晚期糖基化终末产物（AGEs）与糖尿病并发症有关。我们之前已经证明，胰岛细胞系HIT-T15暴露于高浓度AGEs会显著降低细胞增殖和胰岛素分泌，并影响调节胰岛素基因转录的转录因子。本研究旨在探讨吡格列酮对AGEs培养的HIT-T15细胞功能和存活率的影响。HIT-T15细胞在单独存在AGEs或补充1μmol/l吡格列酮的情况下培养5天。然后测定细胞活力、胰岛素分泌和胰岛素含量、氧化还原平衡、AGE受体（RAGE）表达和NF-kB活化。结果表明，吡格列酮保护β细胞免受AGEs诱导的凋亡和坏死。此外，吡格列酮恢复了氧化还原平衡，提高了对低葡萄糖浓度的反应性。在AGEs培养物中添加吡格列酮可减弱NF-kB磷酸化，并阻止AGEs下调IkBα表达。这些发现表明，吡格列酮保护β细胞免受AGEs的危险影响[2]。

Animal/Disease Models: ob/ob and adipo-/- ob/ob mice with a C57Bl/6 background[3]
Doses: 10 or 30 mg/kg
Route of Administration: po (oral gavage); one time/day; 14 days
Experimental Results: demonstrated no changes of serum- free fatty acid and triglyceride levels as well as adipocyte sizes in ob/ob and adipo-/- ob/ob C57BL/6 mice at 10 mg/kg but Dramatically decreased to a similar degree at 30 mg/kg. Also demonstrated no changes of expressions of TNFα and resistin in adipose tissues of ob/ob and adipo-/- ob/ob mice at 10 mg/kg but diminished at 30 mg/kg.

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Animal/Disease Models: Male Wistar albino rats[4]
Doses: 10 mg/kg
Route of Administration: po (oral gavage); one time/day; 4 weeks
Experimental Results: diminished the elevated serum levels of both creatinine and creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB), TGF-β1 gene expression and regulated the expression of MMP-2/TIMP-2 system.

Absorption, Distribution and Excretion
Following oral administration of pioglitazone, peak serum concentrations are observed within 2 hours (Tmax) - food slightly delays the time to peak serum concentration, increasing Tmax to approximately 3-4 hours, but does not alter the extent of absorption. Steady-state concentrations of both parent drug and its primary active metabolites are achieved after 7 days of once-daily administration of pioglitazone. Cmax and AUC increase proportionately to administered doses.
Approximately 15-30% of orally administered pioglitazone is recovered in the urine. The bulk of its elimination, then, is presumed to be through the excretion of unchanged drug in the bile or as metabolites in the feces.
The average apparent volume of distribution of pioglitazone is 0.63 ± 0.41 L/kg.
The apparent clearance of orally administered pioglitazone is 5-7 L/h.
There was no significant difference in the pharmacokinetic profile of pioglitazone in subjects with normal or with moderately impaired renal function. In patients with moderate and severe renal impairment, although mean serum concentrations of pioglitazone and its metabolites were increased, no dose adjustment is needed. After repeated oral doses of pioglitazone, mean AUC values were decreased in patients with severe renal impairment compared with healthy subjects with normal renal function for pioglitazone.
Following oral administration, approximately 15% to 30% of the pioglitazone dose is recovered in the urine. Renal elimination of pioglitazone is negligible, and the drug is excreted primarily as metabolites and their conjugates. It is presumed that most of the oral dose is excreted into the bile either unchanged or as metabolites and eliminated in the feces.
Pioglitazone is a thiazolidinedione insulin sensitizer that has shown efficacy in Type 2 diabetes and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in humans. It may be useful for treatment of similar conditions in cats. The purpose of this study was to investigate the pharmacokinetics of pioglitazone in lean and obese cats, to provide a foundation for assessment of its effects on insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism. Pioglitazone was administered intravenously (median 0.2 mg/kg) or orally (3 mg/kg) to 6 healthy lean (3.96 +/- 0.56 kg) and 6 obese (6.43 +/- 0.48 kg) cats, in a two by two Latin Square design with a 4-week washout period. Blood samples were collected over 24 hr, and pioglitazone concentrations were measured via a validated high-performance liquid chromatography assay. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined using two-compartmental analysis for IV data and noncompartmental analysis for oral data. After oral administration, mean bioavailability was 55%, t(1/2) was 3.5 h, T(max) was 3.6 hr, C(max) was 2131 ng/mL, and AUC(0-8) was 15,56 ng/mL/hr. There were no statistically significant differences in pharmacokinetic parameters between lean and obese cats following either oral or intravenous administration. Systemic exposure to pioglitazone in cats after a 3 mg/kg oral dose approximates that observed in humans with therapeutic doses.
The mean apparent volume of distribution (Vd/F) of pioglitazone following single-dose administration is 0.63 +/- 0.41 (mean +/- SD) L/kg of body weight. Pioglitazone is extensively protein bound (> 99%) in human serum, principally to serum albumin. Pioglitazone also binds to other serum proteins, but with lower affinity. M-III (keto derivative of pioglitazone) and M-IV (hydroxyl derivative of pioglitazone) are also extensively bound (> 98%) to serum albumin.
For more Absorption, Distribution and Excretion (Complete) data for Pioglitazone (6 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

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Metabolism / Metabolites
Pioglitazone is extensively metabolized by both hydroxylation and oxidation - the resulting metabolites are also partly converted to glucuronide or sulfate conjugates. The pharmacologically active M-IV and M-III metabolites are the main metabolites found in human serum and their circulating concentrations are equal to, or greater than, those of the parent drug. The specific CYP isoenzymes involved in the metabolism of pioglitazone are CYP2C8 and, to a lesser degree, CYP3A4. There is also some evidence to suggest a contribution by extrahepatic CYP1A1.
Isoforms of cytochrome P450 (CYP) are involved in the metabolism of pioglitazone, including CYP2C8 and, to a lesser degree, CYP3A4. CYP2C9 is not significantly involved in the elimination of pioglitazone. Pioglitazone is not a strong inducer of CYP3A4, and pioglitazone was not shown to induce CYPs.
Pioglitazone is extensively metabolized by hydroxylation and oxidation; the metabolites also partly convert to glucuronide or sulfate conjugates. Metabolites M-III (keto derivative of pioglitazone) and M-IV (hydroxyl derivative of pioglitazone) are the major circulating active metabolites in humans.
Pioglitazone has known human metabolites that include 2-[6-(2-{4-[(2,4-dioxo-1,3-thiazolidin-5-yl)methyl]phenoxy}ethyl)pyridin-3-yl]acetic acid, 5-({4-[2-(5-ethylpyridin-2-yl)-2-hydroxyethoxy]phenyl}methyl)-1,3-thiazolidine-2,4-dione, and 5-[(4-{2-[5-(1-hydroxyethyl)pyridin-2-yl]ethoxy}phenyl)methyl]-1,3-thiazolidine-2,4-dione.
Hepatic

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Biological Half-Life
The mean serum half-life of pioglitazone and its metabolites (M-III and M-IV) range from 3-7 hours and 16-24 hours, respectively.
The mean serum half-life of pioglitazone and its metabolites (M-III and M-IV) range from three to seven hours and 16 to 24 hours, respectively.

Toxicity Summary
IDENTIFICATION AND USE: Pioglitazone is a solid. It is used as hypoglycemic agent as an adjunct to diet and exercise for the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. HUMAN STUDIES: Pioglitazone hydrochloride is a thiazolidinedione that depends on the presence of insulin for its mechanism of action. Pioglitazone hydrochloride decreases insulin resistance in the periphery and in the liver resulting in increased insulin-dependent glucose disposal and decreased hepatic glucose output. Pioglitazone is an agonist for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma). PPAR receptors are found in tissues important for insulin action such as adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, and liver. Activation of PPARgamma nuclear receptors modulates the transcription of a number of insulin responsive genes involved in the control of glucose and lipid metabolism. No evidence of hepatotoxicity has been noted with pioglitazone in clinical studies to date. However, hepatitis, liver function test abnormalities (such as elevations in hepatic enzymes to at least 3 times the upper limit of normal), mixed hepatocellular-cholestatic liver injury, and liver failure with or without fatalities have been reported during postmarketing experience with the drug. Thiazolidinediones, including pioglitazone hydrochloride, cause or exacerbate congestive heart failure in some patients. Pioglitazone-induced heart failure is known in patients with underlying heart disease, but is not well documented in patients with normal left ventricular function. It has been however reported that a patient developed congestive heart failure and pulmonary edema with normal left ventricular function within 1 year of starting pioglitazone therapy. Patients treated with pioglitazone have increased risk of bladder cancer compared to general population. There was also described an association of pioglitazone use with an increased risk of newly developed chronic kidney disease. ANIMAL STUDIES: Heart enlargement was seen in a 13-week study in monkeys at oral doses of 8.9 mg/kg and above, but not in a 52-week study at oral doses up to 32 mg/kg. Heart enlargement has been observed in mice (100 mg/kg), rats (4 mg/kg and above) and dogs (3 mg/kg) treated orally with pioglitazone hydrochloride. In a one-year rat study, drug-related early death due to apparent heart dysfunction occurred at an oral dose of 160 mg/kg/day. A two-year carcinogenicity study was conducted in male and female rats at oral doses up to 63 mg/kg. Drug-induced tumors were not observed in any organ except for the urinary bladder. A two-year carcinogenicity study was conducted in male and female mice at oral doses up to 100 mg/kg/day. No drug-induced tumors were observed in any organ. No adverse effects upon fertility were observed in male and female rats at oral doses up to 40 mg/kg pioglitazone hydrochloride daily prior to and throughout mating and gestation. Pioglitazone administered to pregnant rats during organogenesis did not cause adverse developmental effects at a dose of 20 mg/kg. When pregnant rats received pioglitazone during late gestation and lactation, delayed postnatal development, attributed to decreased body weight, occurred in offspring at maternal doses of 10 mg/kg and above. In pregnant rabbits administered pioglitazone during organogenesis, no adverse developmental effects were observed at 80 mg/kg, but reduced embryofetal viability at 160 mg/kg. Pioglitazone hydrochloride was not mutagenic in a battery of genetic toxicology studies, including the Ames bacterial assay, a mammalian cell forward gene mutation assay, an in vitro cytogenetics assay using CHL cells, an unscheduled DNA synthesis assay, and an in vivo micronucleus assay.
Pioglitazone acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPAR) in target tissues for insulin action such as adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, and liver. Activation of PPAR-gamma receptors increases the transcription of insulin-responsive genes involved in the control of glucose production, transport, and utilization. In this way, pioglitazone both enhances tissue sensitivity to insulin and reduces hepatic gluconeogenesis. Thus, insulin resistance associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus is improved without an increase in insulin secretion by pancreatic β cells.

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Hepatotoxicity
In contrast to troglitazone, pioglitazone is not associated with an increased frequency of aminotransferase elevations during therapy. In clinical trials, ALT elevations above 3 times the ULN occurred in only 0.26% of patients on pioglitazone, compared to 0.25% of placebo recipients (and 1.9% of troglitazone recipients in similar studies). In addition, clinically apparent liver injury attributed to pioglitazone is very rare, fewer than a dozen cases having been described in the literature despite extensive use of this agent. The liver injury usually arises between 1 and 6 months after starting therapy and all patterns of serum enzymes elevations have been described including hepatocellular, cholestatic and mixed. Allergic phenomena are rare and autoantibodies have not been typically present. Cases of acute liver failure attributed to pioglitazone have been reported, usually in association with a hepatocellular pattern of injury. In most instances, recovery is complete within 2 to 3 months.
Likelihood score: C (probable rare cause of clinically apparent liver injury).

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Effects During Pregnancy and Lactation
◉ Summary of Use during Lactation
No information is available on the clinical use of pioglitazone during breastfeeding. Pioglitazone is over 99% protein bound in plasma, so it is unlikely to pass into breastmilk in clinically important amounts. However, an alternate drug may be preferred, especially while nursing a newborn or preterm infant.
◉ Effects in Breastfed Infants
Relevant published information was not found as of the revision date.
◉ Effects on Lactation and Breastmilk
Relevant published information was not found as of the revision date.

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Protein Binding
Pioglitazone is >99% protein-bound in human plasma - binding is primarily to albumin, although pioglitazone has been shown to bind other serum proteins with a lower affinity. The M-III and M-IV metabolites of pioglitazone are >98% protein-bound (also primarily to albumin).

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Toxicity Data
Hypogycemia; LD₅₀=mg/kg (orally in rat)

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Interactions
The aim was to investigate the effects of coadministration of the sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor empagliflozin with the thiazolidinedione pioglitazone. In study 1, 20 healthy volunteers received 50 mg of empagliflozin alone for 5 days, followed by 50 mg of empagliflozin coadministered with 45 mg of pioglitazone for 7 days and 45 mg of pioglitazone alone for 7 days in 1 of 2 treatment sequences. In study 2, 20 volunteers received 45 mg of pioglitazone alone for 7 days and 10, 25, and 50 mg of empagliflozin for 9 days coadministered with 45 mg of pioglitazone for the first 7 days in 1 of 4 treatment sequences. Pioglitazone exposure (Cmax and AUC) increased when coadministered with empagliflozin versus monotherapy in study 1. The geometric mean ratio (GMR) for pioglitazone Cmax at steady state (Cmax,ss) and for AUC during the dosing interval at steady state (AUCt,ss) when coadministered with empagliflozin versus administration alone was 187.89% (95% CI, 166.35%-212.23%) and 157.97% (95% CI, 148.02%-168.58%), respectively. Because an increase in pioglitazone exposure was not expected, based on in vitro data, a second study was conducted with the empagliflozin doses tested in Phase III trials. In study 2, pioglitazone exposure decreased marginally when coadministered with empagliflozin. The GMR for pioglitazone Cmax,ss when coadministered with empagliflozin versus administration alone was 87.74% (95% CI, 73.88%-104.21%) with empagliflozin 10 mg, 90.23% (95% CI, 66.84%-121.82%) with empagliflozin 25 mg, and 89.85% (95% CI, 71.03%-113.66%) with empagliflozin 50 mg. The GMR for pioglitazone AUCt,ss when coadministered with empagliflozin versus administration alone was 90.01% (95% CI, 77.91%-103.99%) with empagliflozin 10 mg, 88.98% (95% CI, 72.69%-108.92%) with empagliflozin 25 mg, and 91.10% (95% CI, 77.40%-107.22%) with empagliflozin 50 mg. The effects of empagliflozin on pioglitazone exposure are not considered to be clinically relevant. Empagliflozin exposure was unaffected by coadministration with pioglitazone. Empagliflozin and pioglitazone were well tolerated when administered alone or in combination. In study 1, adverse events were reported in 1 of 19 participants on empagliflozin 50 mg alone, 4 of 20 on pioglitazone alone, and 5 of 18 on combination treatment. In study 2, adverse events were reported in 8 of 20 participants on pioglitazone alone, 10 of 18 when coadministered with empagliflozin 10 mg, 5 of 17 when coadministered with empagliflozin 25 mg, and 6 of 16 when coadministered with empagliflozin 50 mg. These results indicate that pioglitazone and empagliflozin can be coadministered without dose adjustments.
The thiazolidinedione antidiabetic drug pioglitazone is metabolized mainly by cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2C8 and CYP3A4 in vitro. Our objective was to study the effects of gemfibrozil, itraconazole, and their combination on the pharmacokinetics of pioglitazone to determine the role of these enzymes in the fate of pioglitazone in humans. In a randomized, double-blind, 4-phase crossover study, 12 healthy volunteers took either 600 mg gemfibrozil or 100 mg itraconazole (first dose, 200 mg), both gemfibrozil and itraconazole, or placebo twice daily for 4 days. On day 3, they received a single dose of 15 mg pioglitazone. Plasma drug concentrations and the cumulative excretion of pioglitazone and its metabolites into urine were measured for up to 48 hours. RESULTS: Gemfibrozil alone raised the mean total area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time 0 to infinity [AUC(0-infinity)] of pioglitazone 3.2-fold (range, 2.3-fold to 6.5-fold; P < 0.001) and prolonged its elimination half-life (t (1/2) ) from 8.3 to 22.7 hours ( P < .001) but had no significant effect on its peak concentration (C max ) compared with placebo (control). Gemfibrozil increased the 48-hour excretion of pioglitazone into urine by 2.5-fold ( P < 0.001) and reduced the ratios of the active metabolites M-III and M-IV to pioglitazone in plasma and urine. Gemfibrozil decreased the area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time 0 to 48 hours [AUC(0-48)] of the metabolites M-III and M-IV by 42% ( P < 0.05) and 45% ( P < 0.001), respectively, but their total AUC(0-infinity) values were reduced by less or not at all. Itraconazole had no significant effect on the pharmacokinetics of pioglitazone and did not alter the effect of gemfibrozil on pioglitazone pharmacokinetics. The mean area under the concentration versus time curve to 49 hours [AUC(0-49)] of itraconazole was 46% lower ( P <0.001) during the gemfibrozil-itraconazole phase than during the itraconazole phase. Gemfibrozil elevates the plasma concentrations of pioglitazone, probably by inhibition of its CYP2C8-mediated metabolism. CYP2C8 appears to be of major importance and CYP3A4 of minor importance in pioglitazone metabolism in vivo in humans. Concomitant use of gemfibrozil with pioglitazone may increase the effects and risk of dose-related adverse effects of pioglitazone. However, studies in diabetic patients are needed to determine the clinical significance of the gemfibrozil-pioglitazone interaction.
Domperidone (prokinetic agent) is frequently co-administered with pioglitazone (anitidiabetic) or ondansetron (antiemetic) in gastroparesis management. These drugs are metabolized via cytochome P-450 (CYP) 3A4, raising the possibility of interaction and adverse reactions. The concentration-dependent inhibitory effect of pioglitazone and ondansetron on domperidone hydroxylation was monitored in pooled human liver microsomes (HLM). Pioglitazone was further assessed as a mechanism-based inhibitor. Microsomal binding was evaluated in our assessment. In HLM, Vmax/Km estimates for monohydroxy domperidone formation decreased in presence of pioglitazone. Diagnostic plots indicated that pioglitazone inhibited domperidone in a partial mixed-type manner. The in vitro Ki was 1.52 uM. Predicted in vivo AUCi/AUC ratio was 1.98. Pioglitazone also exerted time-dependent inhibition on the metabolism of domperidone and the average remaining enzymatic activity decreased significantly upon preincubation with pioglitazone over 0-40 min. Diagnostic plots showed no inhibitory effect of ondansetron on domperidone hydroxylation. In conclusion, pioglitazone inhibited domperidone metabolism in vitro through different complex mechanisms. Our in vitro data predict that the co-administration of these drugs can potentially trigger an in vivo drug-drug interaction.
/The objective of this study was/ to investigate potential drug-drug interactions between topiramate and metformin and pioglitazone at steady state. Two open-label studies were performed in healthy adult men and women. In Study 1, eligible participants were given metformin alone for 3 days (500 mg twice daily (BID)) followed by concomitant metformin and topiramate (titrated to 100 mg BID) from days 4 to 10. In Study 2, eligible participants were randomly assigned to treatment with pioglitazone 30 mg once daily (QD) alone for 8 days followed by concomitant pioglitazone and topiramate (titrated to 96 mg BID) from days 9 to 22 (Group 1) or to topiramate (titrated to 96 mg BID) alone for 11 days followed by concomitant pioglitazone 30 mg QD and topiramate 96 mg BID from days 12 to 22 (Group 2). An analysis of variance was used to evaluate differences in pharmacokinetics with and without concomitant treatment; 90% confidence intervals (CI) for the ratio of the geometric least squares mean (LSM) estimates for maximum plasma concentration (Cmax), area under concentration-time curve for dosing interval (AUC12 or AUC24), and oral clearance (CL/F) with and without concomitant treatment were used to assess a drug interaction. A comparison to historical data suggested a modest increase in topiramate oral clearance when given concomitantly with metformin. Coadministration with topiramate reduced metformin oral clearance at steady state, resulting in a modest increase in systemic metformin exposure. Geometric LSM ratios and 90% CI for metformin CL/F and AUC12 were 80% (75%, 85%) and 125% (117%, 134%), respectively. Pioglitazone had no effect on topiramate pharmacokinetics at steady state. Concomitant topiramate resulted in decreased systemic exposure to pioglitazone and its active metabolites, with geometric LSM ratios and 90% CI for AUC24 of 85.0% (75.7%, 95.6%) for pioglitazone, 40.5% (36.8%, 44.6%) for M-III, and 83.8% (76.1%, 91.2%) for M-IV, respectively. This effect appeared more pronounced in women than in men. Coadministration of topiramate with metformin or pioglitazone was generally well tolerated by healthy participants in these studies. A modest increase in metformin exposure and decrease in topiramate exposure was observed at steady state following coadministration of metformin 500 mg BID and topiramate 100mg BID. The clinical significance of the observed interaction is unclear but is not likely to require a dose adjustment of either agent. Pioglitazone 30 mg QD did not affect the pharmacokinetics of topiramate at steady state, while coadministration of topiramate 96 mg BID with pioglitazone decreased steady-state systemic exposure to pioglitazone, M-III, and M-IV. While the clinical consequence of this interaction is unknown, careful attention should be given to the routine monitoring for adequate glycemic control of patients receiving this concomitant therapy. Concomitant administration of topiramate with metformin or pioglitazone was generally well tolerated and no new safety concerns were observed.
For more Interactions (Complete) data for Pioglitazone (20 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

[1]. A novel selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha agonist, 2-methyl-c-5-[4-[5-methyl-2-(4-methylphenyl)-4-oxazolyl]butyl]-1,3-dioxane-r-2-carboxylic acid (NS-220), potently decreases plasma triglyceride and glucose leve.

[2]. Pioglitazone attenuates the detrimental effects of advanced glycation end-products in the pancreatic beta cell line HIT-T15. Regul Pept. 2012 Aug 20;177(1-3):79-84.

[3]. Pioglitazone ameliorates insulin resistance and diabetes by both adiponectin-dependent and -independent pathways. J Biol Chem. 2006 Mar 31;281(13):8748-55.

[4]. Pioglitazone attenuates cardiac fibrosis and hypertrophy in a rat model of diabetic nephropathy. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2012 Sep;17(3):324-33.

Therapeutic Uses
Hypoglycemic Agents
/CLINICAL TRIALS/ ClinicalTrials.gov is a registry and results database of publicly and privately supported clinical studies of human participants conducted around the world. The Web site is maintained by the National Library of Medicine (NLM) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Each ClinicalTrials.gov record presents summary information about a study protocol and includes the following: Disease or condition; Intervention (for example, the medical product, behavior, or procedure being studied); Title, description, and design of the study; Requirements for participation (eligibility criteria); Locations where the study is being conducted; Contact information for the study locations; and Links to relevant information on other health Web sites, such as NLM's MedlinePlus for patient health information and PubMed for citations and abstracts for scholarly articles in the field of medicine. Pioglitazone is included in the database.
Pioglitazone is used alone (monotherapy) or in combination with a sulfonylurea antidiabetic agent, metformin (either as a fixed-combination preparation or as individual drugs given concurrently), or insulin as an adjunct to diet and exercise for the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pioglitazone is used also in fixed combination with glimepiride in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus who are already receiving pioglitazone and a sulfonylurea separately or who are inadequately controlled on a sulfonylurea or pioglitazone alone. In patients whose hyperglycemia cannot be controlled with these other antidiabetic agents, pioglitazone should be added to, not substituted for, such antidiabetic therapy. /Included in US product labeling/
/EXPL THER/ Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma-activating drugs show various salutary effects in preclinical models of neurodegenerative disease. The decade-long clinical usage of these drugs as antidiabetics now allows for evaluation of patient-oriented data sources. Using observational data from 2004-2010, we analyzed the association of pioglitazone and incidence of dementia in a prospective cohort study of 145,928 subjects aged >/= 60 years who, at baseline, were free of dementia and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. We distinguished between nondiabetics, diabetics without pioglitazone, diabetics with prescriptions of <8 calendar quarters of pioglitazone, and diabetics with =8 quarters. Cox proportional hazard models explored the relative risk (RR) of dementia incidence dependent on pioglitazone use adjusted for sex, age, use of rosiglitazone or metformin, and cardiovascular comorbidities. Long-term use of pioglitazone was associated with a lower dementia incidence. Relative to nondiabetics, the cumulative long-term use of pioglitazone reduced the dementia risk by 47% (RR=0.53, p=0.029). If diabetes patients used pioglitazone <8 quarters, the dementia risk was comparable to those of nondiabetics (RR=1.16, p=0.317), and diabetes patients without a pioglitazone treatment had a 23% increase in dementia risk (RR=1.23, p<0.001). We did not find evidence for age effects, nor for selection into pioglitazone treatment due to obesity. These findings indicate that pioglitazone treatment is associated with a reduced dementia risk in initially non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus patients. Prospective clinical trials are needed to evaluate a possible neuroprotective effect in these patients in an ageing population.
For more Therapeutic Uses (Complete) data for Pioglitazone (9 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

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Drug Warnings
/BOXED WARNING/ WARNING: CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE. Thiazolidinediones, including pioglitazone hydrochloride, cause or exacerbate congestive heart failure in some patients. After initiation of pioglitazone tablets, and after dose increases, monitor patients carefully for signs and symptoms of heart failure (e.g., excessive, rapid weight gain, dyspnea, and/or edema). If heart failure develops, it should be managed according to current standards of care and discontinuation or dose reduction of pioglitazone hydrochloride must be considered. Pioglitazone tablets are not recommended in patients with symptomatic heart failure. Initiation of pioglitazone hydrochloride in patients with established NYHA Class III or IV heart failure is contraindicated.
Thiazolidinediones, including pioglitazone, alone or in combination with other antidiabetic agents, can cause fluid retention, which may lead to or exacerbate congestive heart failure (CHF). Use of thiazolidinediones is associated with an approximately twofold increased risk of CHF. Use of pioglitazone in combination with insulin or in patients with New York Heart Association (NYHA) class I or II heart failure may increase the risk. Patients should be observed for signs and symptoms of CHF (e.g., dyspnea, rapid weight gain, edema, unexplained cough or fatigue), especially during initiation of therapy and dosage titration. If signs and symptoms of CHF develop, the disorder should be managed according to current standards of care. In addition, a decrease in the dosage or discontinuance of pioglitazone must be considered in such patients.
Patients with New York Heart Association (NYHA) class III or IV cardiac status with or without congestive heart failure (CHF) or with an acute coronary event were not studied in clinical trials of pioglitazone; initiation of therapy with the drug is contraindicated in patients with NYHA class III or IV heart failure. Use of pioglitazone is not recommended in patients with symptomatic heart failure. Caution should be exercised in patients with edema and in those who are at risk for CHF. Thiazolidinedione therapy should not be initiated in hospitalized patients with diabetes mellitus because of the delayed onset of action and because possible drug-related increases in vascular volume and CHF may complicate care of patients with hemodynamic changes induced by coexisting conditions or in-hospital interventions.
Risk for pregnancy unless contraceptive measures initiated; anovulatory premenopausal women with insulin resistance may resume ovulation during therapy. The frequency of resumption of ovulation with pioglitazone therapy has not been evaluated in clinical studies, and, therefore, is unknown. If menstrual dysfunction occurs, weigh risks versus benefits of continued pioglitazone.
For more Drug Warnings (Complete) data for Pioglitazone (20 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

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Pharmacodynamics
Pioglitazone enhances cellular responsiveness to insulin, increases insulin-dependent glucose disposal, and improves impaired glucose homeostasis. In patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, these effects result in lower plasma glucose concentrations, lower plasma insulin concentrations, and lower HbA1c values. Significant fluid retention leading to the development/exacerbation of congestive heart failure has been reported with pioglitazone - avoid its use in patients in heart failure or at risk of developing heart failure. There is some evidence that pioglitazone may be associated with an increased risk of developing bladder cancer. Pioglitazone should not be used in patients with active bladder cancer and should be used with caution in patients with a history of bladder cancer.

C19H20N2O3S

356.44

356.119

C, 64.02; H, 5.66; N, 7.86; O, 13.47; S, 8.99

111025-46-8

Pioglitazone-d4;1134163-29-3;Pioglitazone hydrochloride;112529-15-4;Pioglitazone potassium;1266523-09-4;Pioglitazone-d4 (alkyl);1134163-31-7

4829

White to off-white solid powder

1.3±0.1 g/cm3

575.4±45.0 °C at 760 mmHg

183-184ºC

301.8±28.7 °C

0.0±1.6 mmHg at 25°C

1.611

2.94

93.59

1

5

7

25

466

0

HYAFETHFCAUJAY-UHFFFAOYSA-N

InChI=1S/C19H20N2O3S/c1-2-13-3-6-15(20-12-13)9-10-24-16-7-4-14(5-8-16)11-17-18(22)21-19(23)25-17/h3-8,12,17H,2,9-11H2,1H3,(H,21,22,23)

5-[[4-[2-(5-ethylpyridin-2-yl)ethoxy]phenyl]methyl]-1,3-thiazolidine-2,4-dione

2934.99.9001

Powder      -20°C    3 years

                     4°C     2 years

In solvent   -80°C    6 months

                  -20°C    1 month

Room temperature (This product is stable at ambient temperature for a few days during ordinary shipping and time spent in Customs)

配方 1 中的溶解度: 2.08 mg/mL (5.84 mM) in 10% DMSO + 40% PEG300 + 5% Tween80 + 45% Saline (这些助溶剂从左到右依次添加，逐一添加), 悬浮液；超声助溶。
例如，若需制备1 mL的工作液，可将100 μL 20.8 mg/mL澄清DMSO储备液加入400 μL PEG300中，混匀；然后向上述溶液中加入50 μL Tween-80，混匀；加入450 μL生理盐水定容至1 mL。
*生理盐水的制备：将 0.9 g 氯化钠溶解在 100 mL ddH₂O中，得到澄清溶液。

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配方 2 中的溶解度: ≥ 2.08 mg/mL (5.84 mM) (饱和度未知) in 10% DMSO + 90% Corn Oil (这些助溶剂从左到右依次添加，逐一添加), 澄清溶液。
例如，若需制备1 mL的工作液，可将 100 μL 20.8 mg/mL 澄清 DMSO 储备液加入到 900 μL 玉米油中并混合均匀。

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配方 3 中的溶解度: 10 mg/mL (28.06 mM) in 0.5% CMC-Na/saline water (这些助溶剂从左到右依次添加，逐一添加), 悬浮液； 超声助溶。
*生理盐水的制备：将 0.9 g 氯化钠溶解在 100 mL ddH₂O中，得到澄清溶液。

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请根据您的实验动物和给药方式选择适当的溶解配方/方案：
1、请先配制澄清的储备液(如：用DMSO配置50 或 100 mg/mL母液(储备液));
2、取适量母液，按从左到右的顺序依次添加助溶剂，澄清后再加入下一助溶剂。以 下列配方为例说明 (注意此配方只用于说明，并不一定代表此产品 的实际溶解配方):
10% DMSO → 40% PEG300 → 5% Tween-80 → 45% ddH2O (或 saline);
假设最终工作液的体积为 1 mL, 浓度为5 mg/mL: 取 100 μL 50 mg/mL 的澄清 DMSO 储备液加到 400 μL PEG300 中，混合均匀/澄清；向上述体系中加入50 μL Tween-80，混合均匀/澄清；然后继续加入450 μL ddH2O (或 saline)定容至 1 mL；
3、溶剂前显示的百分比是指该溶剂在最终溶液/工作液中的体积所占比例;
4、 如产品在配制过程中出现沉淀/析出，可通过加热(≤50℃)或超声的方式助溶;
5、为保证最佳实验结果，工作液请现配现用！
6、如不确定怎么将母液配置成体内动物实验的工作液，请查看说明书或联系我们;
7、 以上所有助溶剂都可在 Invivochem.cn网站购买。