hPPARγ (EC50 = 0.93 μM) mouse PPARγ (EC50 = 0.99 μM); hPPARδ (EC50 = 43 μM); hPPARα (EC50 = 100 μM); mouse PPARα (EC50 = 100 μM)

添加到 AGE 培养基中的吡格列酮完全逆转 AGE 诱导的 β 细胞坏死的影响。此外，吡格列酮完全阻止了 AGE 引起的 caspase-3 激活的任何增加，使 caspase-3 活性恢复到与对照细胞相当的水平。正如预期的那样，AG 可以减轻 AGE 引起的活力降低[2]。

在 ob/ob 和 adipo-/- ob/ob 小鼠中，给予 10 mg/kg 吡格列酮后，无血清脂肪酸和甘油三酯水平以及脂肪细胞大小保持不变，但给予 30 mg 后显着降低至相当程度/kg 吡格列酮。另外，给予10 mg/kg吡格列酮后，ob/ob和adipo-/- ob/ob小鼠脂肪组织中TNFα和抵抗素的表达保持不变，但给予30 mg/kg吡格列酮后，TNFα和抵抗素表达下降。因此，在吡格列酮诱导的胰岛素抵抗和糖尿病改善过程中，脂联素可能在骨骼肌中独立发挥作用，而在肝脏中依赖性发挥作用[3]。泊格列酮（每天 10 毫克/公斤）治疗可有效减少心脏肥大和体重减轻。吡格列酮治疗可显着降低升高的血糖水平并改善与之相关的血脂异常。此外，D 大鼠的血清肌酐水平略高于 N 对照组（P <0.05）。另一方面，糖尿病肾病（DN）组表现出显着的肾功能损害（P<0.05）。此外，与N和D大鼠相比，DN大鼠的CK-MB血清活性最高（P<0.05）。吡格列酮可以降低肌酐和肌酸激酶-MB (CK-MB) 血清水平的升高[4]。

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吡格列酮，每天口服一次，持续 14 天，剂量为 10 或 30 mg/kg，可改善糖尿病和胰岛素抵抗；这种作用在肝脏中可能依赖于脂质运载蛋白，但在骨骼肌中则不依赖[3]。吡格列酮（口服灌胃，10 mg/kg，每日一次，持续四周）可以缓解与之相关的血脂异常，提高血糖水平，并显着减轻体重（BW）和心脏肥厚[4]。

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噻唑烷二酮已被证明可以上调白色脂肪组织中的脂联素表达和血浆脂联素水平，这些上调被认为是噻唑烷二酮类诱导改善与肥胖相关的胰岛素抵抗的主要机制。为了验证这一假设，我们生成了具有C57B/6背景的脂联素敲除（脂肪-/-）ob/ob小鼠。服用10mg/kg吡格列酮14天后，肥胖/肥胖小鼠的胰岛素抵抗和糖尿病明显改善，血清脂联素水平显著上调。肥胖/肥胖小鼠胰岛素抵抗的改善归因于肝脏中葡萄糖产量的减少和AMP活化蛋白激酶的增加，而不是骨骼肌中葡萄糖摄取的增加。相比之下，肥胖/肥胖/肥胖小鼠的胰岛素抵抗和糖尿病没有改善。服用30mg/kg吡格列酮14天后，肥胖/肥胖小鼠的胰岛素抵抗和糖尿病再次显著改善，这不仅归因于肝脏葡萄糖产量的减少，还归因于骨骼肌葡萄糖摄取的增加。有趣的是，肥胖/肥胖/肥胖小鼠也表现出胰岛素抵抗和糖尿病的显著改善，这归因于骨骼肌葡萄糖摄取的增加，而不是肝脏葡萄糖产量的减少。10mg/kg吡格列酮后，ob/ob和肥胖-/-ob/ob小鼠的血清游离脂肪酸和甘油三酯水平以及脂肪细胞大小没有变化，但30mg/kg吡格列酮类后显著降低到类似程度。此外，10mg/kg吡格列酮后，ob/ob和肥胖-/-ob/ob小鼠脂肪组织中TNFα和抵抗素的表达没有变化，但30mg/kg吡格列酮类后有所下降。因此，吡格列酮诱导的胰岛素抵抗和糖尿病的改善可能在肝脏中以脂联素依赖的方式发生，在骨骼肌中独立发生。[3]

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吡格列酮已被证明对心血管结局有益。然而，人们对其对糖尿病肾病相关心脏重塑的影响知之甚少。因此，本研究旨在研究吡格列酮对糖尿病肾病大鼠模型心脏纤维化和肥大的影响。为此，将雄性Wistar白化大鼠随机分为4组（每组n=10）：正常（n）组、糖尿病（D）组、接受等量赋形剂（0.5%羧甲基纤维素）的糖尿病肾病（DN）组和口服吡格列酮（10mg/kg/D）治疗4周的糖尿病肾病组。肾次全切除加链脲佐菌素（STZ）注射诱导糖尿病肾病。结果显示，DN大鼠的心脏组织中胶原纤维过度沉积，同时心肌细胞明显肥大。这与心脏转化生长因子β1（TGF-β1）基因的显著上调有关。此外，DN大鼠心脏中基质金属蛋白酶2（MMP-2）的基因表达降低，而金属蛋白酶组织抑制剂2（TIMP-2）的基因表达式升高。此外，在DN大鼠中观察到脂质过氧化和心肌损伤加剧，其血清肌酸激酶MB水平显著升高。服用吡格列酮后，所有这些异常都得到了改善。我们的研究结果表明，心脏TGF-β1基因的上调以及MMP-2和TIMP-2表达的不平衡与糖尿病肾病相关的心脏纤维化密切相关。吡格列酮可以通过抑制TGF-β1的基因表达和调节MMP-2/TIMP-2系统来改善心脏重塑[4]。

吡格列酮是一种抗糖尿病药物，可以保持胰腺β细胞质量并改善其功能。晚期糖基化终末产物（AGEs）与糖尿病并发症有关。我们之前已经证明，胰岛细胞系HIT-T15暴露于高浓度AGEs会显著降低细胞增殖和胰岛素分泌，并影响调节胰岛素基因转录的转录因子。本研究旨在探讨吡格列酮对AGEs培养的HIT-T15细胞功能和存活率的影响。HIT-T15细胞在单独存在AGEs或补充1μmol/l吡格列酮的情况下培养5天。然后测定细胞活力、胰岛素分泌和胰岛素含量、氧化还原平衡、AGE受体（RAGE）表达和NF-kB活化。结果表明，吡格列酮保护β细胞免受AGEs诱导的凋亡和坏死。此外，吡格列酮恢复了氧化还原平衡，提高了对低葡萄糖浓度的反应性。在AGEs培养物中添加吡格列酮可减弱NF-kB磷酸化，并阻止AGEs下调IkBα表达。这些发现表明，吡格列酮保护β细胞免受AGEs的危险影响[2]。

Absorption, Distribution and Excretion
Absorption
Following oral administration of pioglitazone, peak serum concentrations are observed within 2 hours (Tmax) - food slightly delays the time to peak serum concentration, increasing Tmax to approximately 3-4 hours, but does not alter the extent of absorption. Steady-state concentrations of both parent drug and its primary active metabolites are achieved after 7 days of once-daily administration of pioglitazone. Cmax and AUC increase proportionately to administered doses.

Route of Elimination
Approximately 15-30% of orally administered pioglitazone is recovered in the urine. The bulk of its elimination, then, is presumed to be through the excretion of unchanged drug in the bile or as metabolites in the feces.

Volume of Distribution
The average apparent volume of distribution of pioglitazone is 0.63 ± 0.41 L/kg.

Clearance
The apparent clearance of orally administered pioglitazone is 5-7 L/h.

There was no significant difference in the pharmacokinetic profile of pioglitazone in subjects with normal or with moderately impaired renal function. In patients with moderate and severe renal impairment, although mean serum concentrations of pioglitazone and its metabolites were increased, no dose adjustment is needed. After repeated oral doses of pioglitazone, mean AUC values were decreased in patients with severe renal impairment compared with healthy subjects with normal renal function for pioglitazone.

Following oral administration, approximately 15% to 30% of the pioglitazone dose is recovered in the urine. Renal elimination of pioglitazone is negligible, and the drug is excreted primarily as metabolites and their conjugates. It is presumed that most of the oral dose is excreted into the bile either unchanged or as metabolites and eliminated in the feces.

Pioglitazone is a thiazolidinedione insulin sensitizer that has shown efficacy in Type 2 diabetes and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in humans. It may be useful for treatment of similar conditions in cats. The purpose of this study was to investigate the pharmacokinetics of pioglitazone in lean and obese cats, to provide a foundation for assessment of its effects on insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism. Pioglitazone was administered intravenously (median 0.2 mg/kg) or orally (3 mg/kg) to 6 healthy lean (3.96 +/- 0.56 kg) and 6 obese (6.43 +/- 0.48 kg) cats, in a two by two Latin Square design with a 4-week washout period. Blood samples were collected over 24 hr, and pioglitazone concentrations were measured via a validated high-performance liquid chromatography assay. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined using two-compartmental analysis for IV data and noncompartmental analysis for oral data. After oral administration, mean bioavailability was 55%, t(1/2) was 3.5 h, T(max) was 3.6 hr, C(max) was 2131 ng/mL, and AUC(0-8) was 15,56 ng/mL/hr. There were no statistically significant differences in pharmacokinetic parameters between lean and obese cats following either oral or intravenous administration. Systemic exposure to pioglitazone in cats after a 3 mg/kg oral dose approximates that observed in humans with therapeutic doses. PMID:22612529

The mean apparent volume of distribution (Vd/F) of pioglitazone following single-dose administration is 0.63 +/- 0.41 (mean +/- SD) L/kg of body weight. Pioglitazone is extensively protein bound (> 99%) in human serum, principally to serum albumin. Pioglitazone also binds to other serum proteins, but with lower affinity. M-III (keto derivative of pioglitazone) and M-IV (hydroxyl derivative of pioglitazone) are also extensively bound (> 98%) to serum albumin.

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Metabolism / Metabolites
Pioglitazone is extensively metabolized by both hydroxylation and oxidation - the resulting metabolites are also partly converted to glucuronide or sulfate conjugates. The pharmacologically active M-IV and M-III metabolites are the main metabolites found in human serum and their circulating concentrations are equal to, or greater than, those of the parent drug. The specific CYP isoenzymes involved in the metabolism of pioglitazone are CYP2C8 and, to a lesser degree, CYP3A4. There is also some evidence to suggest a contribution by extrahepatic CYP1A1.

Isoforms of cytochrome P450 (CYP) are involved in the metabolism of pioglitazone, including CYP2C8 and, to a lesser degree, CYP3A4. CYP2C9 is not significantly involved in the elimination of pioglitazone. Pioglitazone is not a strong inducer of CYP3A4, and pioglitazone was not shown to induce CYPs.

Pioglitazone is extensively metabolized by hydroxylation and oxidation; the metabolites also partly convert to glucuronide or sulfate conjugates. Metabolites M-III (keto derivative of pioglitazone) and M-IV (hydroxyl derivative of pioglitazone) are the major circulating active metabolites in humans.

Pioglitazone has known human metabolites that include 2-[6-(2-{4-[(2,4-dioxo-1,3-thiazolidin-5-yl)methyl]phenoxy}ethyl)pyridin-3-yl]acetic acid, 5-[(4-{2-[5-(1-hydroxyethyl)pyridin-2-yl]ethoxy}phenyl)methyl]-1,3-thiazolidine-2,4-dione, and 5-({4-[2-(5-ethylpyridin-2-yl)-2-hydroxyethoxy]phenyl}methyl)-1,3-thiazolidine-2,4-dione.

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Biological Half-Life
The mean serum half-life of pioglitazone and its metabolites (M-III and M-IV) range from 3-7 hours and 16-24 hours, respectively.

The mean serum half-life of pioglitazone and its metabolites (M-III and M-IV) range from three to seven hours and 16 to 24 hours, respectively.

Toxicity Summary
IDENTIFICATION AND USE: Pioglitazone is a solid. It is used as hypoglycemic agent as an adjunct to diet and exercise for the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. HUMAN STUDIES: Pioglitazone hydrochloride is a thiazolidinedione that depends on the presence of insulin for its mechanism of action. Pioglitazone hydrochloride decreases insulin resistance in the periphery and in the liver resulting in increased insulin-dependent glucose disposal and decreased hepatic glucose output. Pioglitazone is an agonist for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma). PPAR receptors are found in tissues important for insulin action such as adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, and liver. Activation of PPARgamma nuclear receptors modulates the transcription of a number of insulin responsive genes involved in the control of glucose and lipid metabolism. No evidence of hepatotoxicity has been noted with pioglitazone in clinical studies to date. However, hepatitis, liver function test abnormalities (such as elevations in hepatic enzymes to at least 3 times the upper limit of normal), mixed hepatocellular-cholestatic liver injury, and liver failure with or without fatalities have been reported during postmarketing experience with the drug. Thiazolidinediones, including pioglitazone hydrochloride, cause or exacerbate congestive heart failure in some patients. Pioglitazone-induced heart failure is known in patients with underlying heart disease, but is not well documented in patients with normal left ventricular function. It has been however reported that a patient developed congestive heart failure and pulmonary edema with normal left ventricular function within 1 year of starting pioglitazone therapy. Patients treated with pioglitazone have increased risk of bladder cancer compared to general population. There was also described an association of pioglitazone use with an increased risk of newly developed chronic kidney disease. ANIMAL STUDIES: Heart enlargement was seen in a 13-week study in monkeys at oral doses of 8.9 mg/kg and above, but not in a 52-week study at oral doses up to 32 mg/kg. Heart enlargement has been observed in mice (100 mg/kg), rats (4 mg/kg and above) and dogs (3 mg/kg) treated orally with pioglitazone hydrochloride. In a one-year rat study, drug-related early death due to apparent heart dysfunction occurred at an oral dose of 160 mg/kg/day. A two-year carcinogenicity study was conducted in male and female rats at oral doses up to 63 mg/kg. Drug-induced tumors were not observed in any organ except for the urinary bladder. A two-year carcinogenicity study was conducted in male and female mice at oral doses up to 100 mg/kg/day. No drug-induced tumors were observed in any organ. No adverse effects upon fertility were observed in male and female rats at oral doses up to 40 mg/kg pioglitazone hydrochloride daily prior to and throughout mating and gestation. Pioglitazone administered to pregnant rats during organogenesis did not cause adverse developmental effects at a dose of 20 mg/kg. When pregnant rats received pioglitazone during late gestation and lactation, delayed postnatal development, attributed to decreased body weight, occurred in offspring at maternal doses of 10 mg/kg and above. In pregnant rabbits administered pioglitazone during organogenesis, no adverse developmental effects were observed at 80 mg/kg, but reduced embryofetal viability at 160 mg/kg. Pioglitazone hydrochloride was not mutagenic in a battery of genetic toxicology studies, including the Ames bacterial assay, a mammalian cell forward gene mutation assay, an in vitro cytogenetics assay using CHL cells, an unscheduled DNA synthesis assay, and an in vivo micronucleus assay.

Pioglitazone acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPAR) in target tissues for insulin action such as adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, and liver. Activation of PPAR-gamma receptors increases the transcription of insulin-responsive genes involved in the control of glucose production, transport, and utilization. In this way, pioglitazone both enhances tissue sensitivity to insulin and reduces hepatic gluconeogenesis. Thus, insulin resistance associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus is improved without an increase in insulin secretion by pancreatic β cells.

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Hepatotoxicity
In contrast to troglitazone, pioglitazone is not associated with an increased frequency of aminotransferase elevations during therapy. In clinical trials, ALT elevations above 3 times the ULN occurred in only 0.26% of patients on pioglitazone, compared to 0.25% of placebo recipients (and 1.9% of troglitazone recipients in similar studies). In addition, clinically apparent liver injury attributed to pioglitazone is very rare, fewer than a dozen cases having been described in the literature despite extensive use of this agent. The liver injury usually arises between 1 and 6 months after starting therapy and all patterns of serum enzymes elevations have been described including hepatocellular, cholestatic and mixed. Allergic phenomena are rare and autoantibodies have not been typically present. Cases of acute liver failure attributed to pioglitazone have been reported, usually in association with a hepatocellular pattern of injury. In most instances, recovery is complete within 2 to 3 months.
Likelihood score: C (probable rare cause of clinically apparent liver injury).

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◉ Summary of Use during Lactation
No information is available on the clinical use of pioglitazone during breastfeeding. Pioglitazone is over 99% protein bound in plasma, so it is unlikely to pass into breastmilk in clinically important amounts. However, an alternate drug may be preferred, especially while nursing a newborn or preterm infant.
◉ Effects in Breastfed Infants
Relevant published information was not found as of the revision date.

◉ Effects on Lactation and Breastmilk
Relevant published information was not found as of the revision date.

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Exposure Routes
Following oral administration, in the fasting state, pioglitazone is first measurable in serum within 30 minutes, with peak concentrations observed within 2 hours. Food slightly delays the time to peak serum concentration to 3 to 4 hours, but does not alter the extent of absorption.

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Toxicity Data
Hypogycemia; LD₅₀=mg/kg (orally in rat)

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Interactions
The aim was to investigate the effects of coadministration of the sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor empagliflozin with the thiazolidinedione pioglitazone. In study 1, 20 healthy volunteers received 50 mg of empagliflozin alone for 5 days, followed by 50 mg of empagliflozin coadministered with 45 mg of pioglitazone for 7 days and 45 mg of pioglitazone alone for 7 days in 1 of 2 treatment sequences. In study 2, 20 volunteers received 45 mg of pioglitazone alone for 7 days and 10, 25, and 50 mg of empagliflozin for 9 days coadministered with 45 mg of pioglitazone for the first 7 days in 1 of 4 treatment sequences. Pioglitazone exposure (Cmax and AUC) increased when coadministered with empagliflozin versus monotherapy in study 1. The geometric mean ratio (GMR) for pioglitazone Cmax at steady state (Cmax,ss) and for AUC during the dosing interval at steady state (AUCt,ss) when coadministered with empagliflozin versus administration alone was 187.89% (95% CI, 166.35%-212.23%) and 157.97% (95% CI, 148.02%-168.58%), respectively. Because an increase in pioglitazone exposure was not expected, based on in vitro data, a second study was conducted with the empagliflozin doses tested in Phase III trials. In study 2, pioglitazone exposure decreased marginally when coadministered with empagliflozin. The GMR for pioglitazone Cmax,ss when coadministered with empagliflozin versus administration alone was 87.74% (95% CI, 73.88%-104.21%) with empagliflozin 10 mg, 90.23% (95% CI, 66.84%-121.82%) with empagliflozin 25 mg, and 89.85% (95% CI, 71.03%-113.66%) with empagliflozin 50 mg. The GMR for pioglitazone AUCt,ss when coadministered with empagliflozin versus administration alone was 90.01% (95% CI, 77.91%-103.99%) with empagliflozin 10 mg, 88.98% (95% CI, 72.69%-108.92%) with empagliflozin 25 mg, and 91.10% (95% CI, 77.40%-107.22%) with empagliflozin 50 mg. The effects of empagliflozin on pioglitazone exposure are not considered to be clinically relevant. Empagliflozin exposure was unaffected by coadministration with pioglitazone. Empagliflozin and pioglitazone were well tolerated when administered alone or in combination. In study 1, adverse events were reported in 1 of 19 participants on empagliflozin 50 mg alone, 4 of 20 on pioglitazone alone, and 5 of 18 on combination treatment. In study 2, adverse events were reported in 8 of 20 participants on pioglitazone alone, 10 of 18 when coadministered with empagliflozin 10 mg, 5 of 17 when coadministered with empagliflozin 25 mg, and 6 of 16 when coadministered with empagliflozin 50 mg. These results indicate that pioglitazone and empagliflozin can be coadministered without dose adjustments. PMID:26051874

The thiazolidinedione antidiabetic drug pioglitazone is metabolized mainly by cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2C8 and CYP3A4 in vitro. Our objective was to study the effects of gemfibrozil, itraconazole, and their combination on the pharmacokinetics of pioglitazone to determine the role of these enzymes in the fate of pioglitazone in humans. In a randomized, double-blind, 4-phase crossover study, 12 healthy volunteers took either 600 mg gemfibrozil or 100 mg itraconazole (first dose, 200 mg), both gemfibrozil and itraconazole, or placebo twice daily for 4 days. On day 3, they received a single dose of 15 mg pioglitazone. Plasma drug concentrations and the cumulative excretion of pioglitazone and its metabolites into urine were measured for up to 48 hours. RESULTS: Gemfibrozil alone raised the mean total area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time 0 to infinity [AUC(0-infinity)] of pioglitazone 3.2-fold (range, 2.3-fold to 6.5-fold; P < 0.001) and prolonged its elimination half-life (t (1/2) ) from 8.3 to 22.7 hours ( P < .001) but had no significant effect on its peak concentration (C max ) compared with placebo (control). Gemfibrozil increased the 48-hour excretion of pioglitazone into urine by 2.5-fold ( P < 0.001) and reduced the ratios of the active metabolites M-III and M-IV to pioglitazone in plasma and urine. Gemfibrozil decreased the area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time 0 to 48 hours [AUC(0-48)] of the metabolites M-III and M-IV by 42% ( P < 0.05) and 45% ( P < 0.001), respectively, but their total AUC(0-infinity) values were reduced by less or not at all. Itraconazole had no significant effect on the pharmacokinetics of pioglitazone and did not alter the effect of gemfibrozil on pioglitazone pharmacokinetics. The mean area under the concentration versus time curve to 49 hours [AUC(0-49)] of itraconazole was 46% lower ( P <0.001) during the gemfibrozil-itraconazole phase than during the itraconazole phase. Gemfibrozil elevates the plasma concentrations of pioglitazone, probably by inhibition of its CYP2C8-mediated metabolism. CYP2C8 appears to be of major importance and CYP3A4 of minor importance in pioglitazone metabolism in vivo in humans. Concomitant use of gemfibrozil with pioglitazone may increase the effects and risk of dose-related adverse effects of pioglitazone. However, studies in diabetic patients are needed to determine the clinical significance of the gemfibrozil-pioglitazone interaction. PMID:15900286

Domperidone (prokinetic agent) is frequently co-administered with pioglitazone (anitidiabetic) or ondansetron (antiemetic) in gastroparesis management. These drugs are metabolized via cytochome P-450 (CYP) 3A4, raising the possibility of interaction and adverse reactions. The concentration-dependent inhibitory effect of pioglitazone and ondansetron on domperidone hydroxylation was monitored in pooled human liver microsomes (HLM). Pioglitazone was further assessed as a mechanism-based inhibitor. Microsomal binding was evaluated in our assessment. In HLM, Vmax/Km estimates for monohydroxy domperidone formation decreased in presence of pioglitazone. Diagnostic plots indicated that pioglitazone inhibited domperidone in a partial mixed-type manner. The in vitro Ki was 1.52 uM. Predicted in vivo AUCi/AUC ratio was 1.98. Pioglitazone also exerted time-dependent inhibition on the metabolism of domperidone and the average remaining enzymatic activity decreased significantly upon preincubation with pioglitazone over 0-40 min. Diagnostic plots showed no inhibitory effect of ondansetron on domperidone hydroxylation. In conclusion, pioglitazone inhibited domperidone metabolism in vitro through different complex mechanisms. Our in vitro data predict that the co-administration of these drugs can potentially trigger an in vivo drug-drug interaction. PMID:24641107

/The objective of this study was/ to investigate potential drug-drug interactions between topiramate and metformin and pioglitazone at steady state. Two open-label studies were performed in healthy adult men and women. In Study 1, eligible participants were given metformin alone for 3 days (500 mg twice daily (BID)) followed by concomitant metformin and topiramate (titrated to 100 mg BID) from days 4 to 10. In Study 2, eligible participants were randomly assigned to treatment with pioglitazone 30 mg once daily (QD) alone for 8 days followed by concomitant pioglitazone and topiramate (titrated to 96 mg BID) from days 9 to 22 (Group 1) or to topiramate (titrated to 96 mg BID) alone for 11 days followed by concomitant pioglitazone 30 mg QD and topiramate 96 mg BID from days 12 to 22 (Group 2). An analysis of variance was used to evaluate differences in pharmacokinetics with and without concomitant treatment; 90% confidence intervals (CI) for the ratio of the geometric least squares mean (LSM) estimates for maximum plasma concentration (Cmax), area under concentration-time curve for dosing interval (AUC12 or AUC24), and oral clearance (CL/F) with and without concomitant treatment were used to assess a drug interaction. A comparison to historical data suggested a modest increase in topiramate oral clearance when given concomitantly with metformin. Coadministration with topiramate reduced metformin oral clearance at steady state, resulting in a modest increase in systemic metformin exposure. Geometric LSM ratios and 90% CI for metformin CL/F and AUC12 were 80% (75%, 85%) and 125% (117%, 134%), respectively. Pioglitazone had no effect on topiramate pharmacokinetics at steady state. Concomitant topiramate resulted in decreased systemic exposure to pioglitazone and its active metabolites, with geometric LSM ratios and 90% CI for AUC24 of 85.0% (75.7%, 95.6%) for pioglitazone, 40.5% (36.8%, 44.6%) for M-III, and 83.8% (76.1%, 91.2%) for M-IV, respectively. This effect appeared more pronounced in women than in men. Coadministration of topiramate with metformin or pioglitazone was generally well tolerated by healthy participants in these studies. A modest increase in metformin exposure and decrease in topiramate exposure was observed at steady state following coadministration of metformin 500 mg BID and topiramate 100mg BID. The clinical significance of the observed interaction is unclear but is not likely to require a dose adjustment of either agent. Pioglitazone 30 mg QD did not affect the pharmacokinetics of topiramate at steady state, while coadministration of topiramate 96 mg BID with pioglitazone decreased steady-state systemic exposure to pioglitazone, M-III, and M-IV. While the clinical consequence of this interaction is unknown, careful attention should be given to the routine monitoring for adequate glycemic control of patients receiving this concomitant therapy. Concomitant administration of topiramate with metformin or pioglitazone was generally well tolerated and no new safety concerns were observed. PMID:25219351

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Protein Binding
Pioglitazone is >99% protein-bound in human plasma - binding is primarily to albumin, although pioglitazone has been shown to bind other serum proteins with a lower affinity. The M-III and M-IV metabolites of pioglitazone are >98% protein-bound (also primarily to albumin).

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Ecological Information
Environmental Fate / Exposure Summary
Pioglitazone's production and administration as a medication may result in its release to the environment through various waste streams. If released to air, an estimated vapor pressure of 2.9X10-14 mm Hg at 25 °C indicates pioglitazone will exist solely in the particulate phase in the atmosphere. Particulate-phase pioglitazone will be removed from the atmosphere by wet and dry deposition. Pioglitazone contains pyridine- and anisole-like functional groups that do not absorb UV light at wavelengths >290 nm and, therefore, may be susceptible to direct photolysis by sunlight. If released to soil, pioglitazone is expected to be immobile based upon an estimated Koc of 9000. Volatilization from moist soil surfaces is not expected to be an important fate process based upon an estimated Henry's Law constant of 1.7X10-12 atm-cu m/mole. Pioglitazone is not expected to volatilize from dry soil surfaces based upon its vapor pressure. Biodegradation data ln soil or water where not available. If released into water, pioglitazone is expected to adsorb to suspended solids and sediment based upon the estimated Koc. Volatilization from water surfaces is not expected to be an important fate process based upon this compound's estimated Henry's Law constant. An estimated BCF of 190 suggests the potential for bioconcentration in aquatic organisms is high. Hydrolysis is not expected to be an important environmental fate process since this compound lacks functional groups that hydrolyze under environmental conditions (pH 5 to 9). Occupational exposure to pioglitazone may occur through inhalation and dermal contact with this compound at workplaces where pioglitazone is produced or used. The general public is not likely to be exposed to pioglitazone unless by direct medical treatment. (SRC)

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History and Incidents
Rosiglitazone was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for type 2 diabetes in 1999. The unique mechanism of action and low risk of hypoglycemia contributed to rapid market uptake of rosiglitazone, but safety concerns became more prominent in 2007. There were 5 major events on 4 calendar days in 2007 regarding safety concerns related to rosiglitazone in certain patients: (1) the May 21, 2007, online release of the rosiglitazone meta-analysis performed by Nissen and Wolski and the FDA safety warning on the same day; (2) the July 30, 2007, conclusion of an FDA advisory committee meeting that rosiglitazone increased cardiac ischemic risk; (3) the August 14, 2007, update of thiazolidinedione (TZD) labels with a black-box warning for heart failure; and (4) the November 14, 2007, update to the warnings and precautions section of the rosiglitazone label for coadministration of nitrate or insulin. /The purpose of this paper was/ to (1) describe TZD (rosiglitazone and pioglitazone) utilization trends from January 1, 2007, continuing through May 2008 amid public announcements of safety concerns and (2) determine the percentage of TZD users who had medical claims indicating increased cardiovascular (CV) risk before and after release (May 21, 2007) of the FDA safety warning and online release of the meta-analysis performed by Nissen and Wolski. A retrospective analysis of pharmacy claims was performed from 9 commercial plans with a combined 9 million eligible members, including a 1.4 million-member cohort from 1 of the plans for which medical claims data were available. We evaluated trends in TZD use for each month for the 17-month period from January 1, 2007, through May 31, 2008, including the percentage of TZD users at increased CV risk. In the trend analysis, for each calendar month of 2007, we calculated mean pharmacy claim counts per day per million members for each of the 2 TZD drugs and for a comparison drug, sitagliptin, a new oral hypoglycemic agent in a different class (dipeptidyl-peptidase-IV inhibitors). For the CV risk analysis, we used the database of integrated medical and pharmacy claims for the 1.4 million-member cohort to identify patients with a current days supply of a TZD on May 20, 2007, December 7, 2007, or May 20, 2008. The medical claims for all identified patients were queried back 2 years from May 20, 2007, December 7, 2007, or May 20, 2008, respectively. Rosiglitazone users at increased CV rsk were defined as those with a medical claim with a primary diagnosis for congestive heart failure (CHF; International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification [ICD-9-CM] codes 428.xx or 398.91), those with a current supply of nitrate or insulin therapy, or those with ischemic heart disease, including myocardial infarction (MI; ICD-9-CM codes 410.xx through 414.xx, or surgical procedure codes [36.0x through 36.3x for removal of obstruction and insertion of stents, bypass surgery, and revascularization] in the primary diagnosis field). Pioglitazone users at increased risk were identified from medical claims with a CHF diagnosis code. The average number of claims per day per million members in January 2007 was 97.3 for rosiglitazone and 107.2 for pioglitazone. The average number of claims for rosiglitazone per day per million members began to decrease in May 2007, falling to 41.0 in December 2007, for a total decrease of 58.6% from the February 2007 peak (99.1), and fell further to 31.8 in May 2008. Pioglitazone use increased 8.0% from January to June 2007 (107.2 to 115.8) and remained relatively flat through December 2007 (114.6) and through May 2008 (108.9). Sitagliptin claims increased 5-fold, at a consistent rate, from an average of 8.6 claims per day per million members in January 2007 to 43.4 in December 2007, and continued to increase to 48.7, in May 2008. Of the 5,117 rosiglitazone users on May 20, 2007, 1,296 (25.3%) were identified at increased CV risk versus 590 (22.5%) of 2,621 users on December 7, 2007 (P = 0.006), and 336 (21.8%) of 1,541 users in May 2008 (P = 0.005). Of 6,056 pioglitazone users on May 20, 2007, 170 (2.8%) had a CHF diagnosis versus 160 (2.5%) of 6,275 users on December 7, 2007 (P = 0.376), and 122 of 5,998 users in May 2008 (P = 0.006). Although rosiglitazone utilization per million members declined by more than half in 2007, when CV safety concerns started to emerge, about 1 in 5 rosiglitazone users had elevated CV risk at year-end 2007 and in May 2008. About 3% of pioglitazone users in May 2007 had a diagnosis of CHF in claims history, which declined to 2% in May 2008. Insurers should consider the impact of persistent utilization of TZDs among members with CV risk factors when making formulary decisions.

[1]. A novel selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha agonist, 2-methyl-c-5-[4-[5-methyl-2-(4-methylphenyl)-4-oxazolyl]butyl]-1,3-dioxane-r-2-carboxylic acid (NS-220), potently decreases plasma triglyceride and glucose leve.

[2]. Pioglitazone attenuates the detrimental effects of advanced glycation end-products in the pancreatic beta cell line HIT-T15. Regul Pept. 2012 Aug 20;177(1-3):79-84.

[3]. Pioglitazone ameliorates insulin resistance and diabetes by both adiponectin-dependent and -independent pathways. J Biol Chem. 2006 Mar 31;281(13):8748-55.

[4]. Pioglitazone attenuates cardiac fibrosis and hypertrophy in a rat model of diabetic nephropathy. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2012 Sep;17(3):324-33.

Pioglitazone hydrochloride is an aromatic ether.
Pioglitazone Hydrochloride is the hydrochloride salt of an orally-active thiazolidinedione with antidiabetic properties and potential antineoplastic activity. Pioglitazone activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma), a ligand-activated transcription factor, thereby inducing cell differentiation and inhibiting cell growth and angiogenesis. This agent also modulates the transcription of insulin-responsive genes, inhibits macrophage and monocyte activation, and stimulates adipocyte differentiation. (NCI05)
A thiazolidinedione and PPAR GAMMA agonist that is used in the treatment of TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS.
See also: Pioglitazone (has active moiety); Glimepiride; Pioglitazone Hydrochloride (component of); Alogliptin Benzoate; Pioglitazone Hydrochloride (component of).

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Drug Indication
Pioglitazone is indicated in the treatment of type-2 diabetes mellitus: as monotherapy: in patients (particularly overweight patients) inadequately controlled by diet and exercise for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance; as dual oral therapy in combination with: metformin, in patients (particularly overweight patients) with insufficient glycaemic control despite maximal tolerated dose of monotherapy with metformin; a sulphonylurea, only in patients who show intolerance to metformin or for whom metformin is contraindicated, with insufficient glycaemic control despite maximal tolerated dose of monotherapy with a sulphonylurea; as triple oral therapy in combination with: metformin and a sulphonylurea, in patients (particularly overweight patients) with insufficient glycaemic control despite dual oral therapy. Pioglitazone is also indicated for combination with insulin in type-2 diabetes mellitus patients with insufficient glycaemic control on insulin for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance.
Pioglitazone is indicated as second or third line treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus as described below: as monotherapyin adult patients (particularly overweight patients) inadequately controlled by diet and exercise for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance. as dual oral therapy in combination withmetformin, in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) with insufficient glycaemic control despite maximal tolerated dose of monotherapy with metformin. a sulphonylurea, only in adult patients who show intolerance to metformin or for whom metformin is contraindicated, with insufficient glycaemic control despite maximal tolerated dose of monotherapy with a sulphonylurea. as triple oral therapy in combination withmetformin and a sulphonylurea, in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) with insufficient glycaemic control despite dual oral therapy. Pioglitazone is also indicated for combination with insulin in type 2 diabetes mellitus adult patients with insufficient glycaemic control on insulin for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance (see section 4. 4). After initiation of therapy with pioglitazone, patients should be reviewed after 3 to 6 months to assess adequacy of response to treatment (e. g. reduction in HbA1c). In patients who fail to show an adequate response, pioglitazone should be discontinued. In light of potential risks with prolonged therapy, prescribers should confirm at subsequent routine reviews that the benefit of pioglitazone is maintained (see section 4. 4).
Pioglitazone is indicated in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus: as monotherapy- in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) inadequately controlled by diet and exercise for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intoleranceas dual oral therapy in combination with- metformin, in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) with insufficient glycaemic control despite maximal tolerated dose of monotherapy with metformin- a sulphonylurea, only in adult patients who show intolerance to metformin or for whom metformin is contraindicated, with insufficient glycaemic control despite maximal tolerated dose of monotherapy with a sulphonylureaas triple oral therapy in combination with- metformin and a sulphonylurea, in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) with insufficient glycaemic control despite dual oral therapy. Pioglitazone is also indicated for combination with insulin in type 2 diabetes mellitus adult patients with insufficient glycaemic control on insulin for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance. After initiation of therapy with pioglitazone, patients should be reviewed after 3 to 6 months to assess adequacy of response to treatment (e. g. reduction in HbA1c). In patients who fail to show an adequate response, pioglitazone should be discontinued. In light of potential risks with prolonged therapy, prescribers should confirm at subsequent routine reviews that the benefit of pioglitazone is maintained.
Pioglitazone is indicated as second or third line treatment of type-2 diabetes mellitus as described below: as monotherapy: in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) inadequately controlled by diet and exercise for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance; as dual oral therapy in combination with: metformin, in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) with insufficient glycaemic control despite maximal tolerated dose of monotherapy with metformin; a sulphonylurea, only in adult patients who show intolerance to metformin or for whom metformin is contraindicated, with insufficient glycaemic control despite maximal tolerated dose of monotherapy with a sulphonylurea; as triple oral therapy in combination with: metformin and a sulphonylurea, in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) with insufficient glycaemic control despite dual oral therapy. Pioglitazone is also indicated for combination with insulin in type-2 diabetes mellitus adult patients with insufficient glycaemic control on insulin for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance. After initiation of therapy with pioglitazone, patients should be reviewed after 3 to 6 months to assess adequacy of response to treatment (e. g. reduction in HbA1c). In patients who fail to show an adequate response, pioglitazone should be discontinued. In light of potential risks with prolonged therapy, prescribers should confirm at subsequent routine reviews that the benefit of pioglitazone is maintained.
Pioglitazone is indicated as second or third line treatment of type-2 diabetes mellitus as described below: as monotherapy: in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) inadequately controlled by diet and exercise for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance. as dual oral therapy in combination with: metformin, in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) with insufficient glycaemic control despite maximal tolerated dose of monotherapy with metformin; a sulphonylurea, only in adult patients who show intolerance to metformin or for whom metformin is contraindicated, with insufficient glycaemic control despite maximal tolerated dose of monotherapy with a sulphonylurea; as triple oral therapy in combination with: metformin and a sulphonylurea, in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) with insufficient glycaemic control despite dual oral therapy. Pioglitazone is also indicated for combination with insulin in type-2 diabetes mellitus adult patients with insufficient glycaemic control on insulin for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance. After initiation of therapy with pioglitazone, patients should be reviewed after three to six months to assess adequacy of response to treatment (e. g. reduction in HbA1c). In patients who fail to show an adequate response, pioglitazone should be discontinued. In light of potential risks with prolonged therapy, prescribers should confirm at subsequent routine reviews that the benefit of pioglitazone is maintained.
Pioglitazone is indicated in the treatment of type-2 diabetes mellitus as monotherapy: , , , in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) inadequately controlled by diet and exercise for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance. , , , Pioglitazone is also indicated for combination with insulin in type 2 diabetes mellitus adult patients with insufficient glycaemic control on insulin for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance. , , After initiation of therapy with pioglitazone, patients should be reviewed after 3 to 6 months to assess adequacy of response to treatment (e. g. reduction in HbA1c). In patients who fail to show an adequate response, pioglitazone should be discontinued. In light of potential risks with prolonged therapy, prescribers should confirm at subsequent routine reviews that the benefit of pioglitazone is maintained. ,
Pioglitazone is indicated in the treatment of type-2 diabetes mellitus: as monotherapyin adult patients (particularly overweight patients) inadequately controlled by diet and exercise for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance. After initiation of therapy with pioglitazone, patients should be reviewed after 3 to 6 months to assess adequacy of response to treatment (e. g. reduction in HbA1c). In patients who fail to show an adequate response, pioglitazone should be discontinued. In light of potential risks with prolonged therapy, prescribers should confirm at subsequent routine reviews that the benefit of pioglitazone is maintained.
Pioglitazone is indicated as second or third line treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus as described below: as monotherapyin adult patients (particularly overweight patients) inadequately controlled by diet and exercise for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance; as dual oral therapy in combination withmetformin, in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) with insufficient glycaemic control despite maximal tolerated dose of monotherapy with metformin; a sulphonylurea, only in adult patients who show intolerance to metformin or for whom metformin is contraindicated, with insufficient glycaemic control despite maximal tolerated dose of monotherapy with a sulphonylurea; as triple oral therapy in combination withmetformin and a sulphonylurea, in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) with insufficient glycaemic control despite dual oral therapy. Pioglitazone is also indicated for combination with insulin in type 2 diabetes mellitus in adult patients with insufficient glycaemic control on insulin for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance. After initiation of therapy with pioglitazone, patients should be reviewed after 3 to 6 months to assess adequacy of response to treatment (e. g. reduction in HbA1c). In patients who fail to show an adequate response, pioglitazone should be discontinued. In light of potential risks with prolonged therapy, prescribers should confirm at subsequent routine reviews that the benefit of pioglitazone is maintained.
Pioglitazone is indicated as second or third line treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus as described below: as monotherapy- in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) inadequately controlled by diet and exercise for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance; as dual oral therapy in combination with- a sulphonylurea, only in adult patients who show intolerance to metformin or for whom metformin is contraindicated, with insufficient glycaemic control despite maximal tolerated dose of monotherapy with a sulphonylurea; Pioglitazone is also indicated for combination with insulin in type 2 diabetes mellitus in adult patients with insufficient glycaemic control on insulin for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance. After initiation of therapy with pioglitazone, patients should be reviewed after 3 to 6 months to assess adequacy of response to treatment (e. g. reduction in HbA1c). In patients who fail to show an adequate response, pioglitazone should be discontinued. In light of potential risks with prolonged therapy, prescribers should confirm at subsequent routine reviews that the benefit of pioglitazone is maintained.
Pioglitazone is indicated as second- or third-line treatment of type-2 diabetes mellitus as described below: as monotherapy: in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) inadequately controlled by diet and exercise for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance; as dual oral therapy in combination with: metformin, in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) with insufficient glycaemic control despite maximal tolerated dose of monotherapy with metformin; a sulphonylurea, only in adult patients who show intolerance to metformin or for whom metformin is contraindicated, with insufficient glycaemic control despite maximal tolerated dose of monotherapy with a sulphonylurea; as triple oral therapy in combination with: metformin and a sulphonylurea, in adult patients (particularly overweight patients) with insufficient glycaemic control despite dual oral therapy. Pioglitazone is also indicated for combination with insulin in type-2-diabetes-mellitus adult patients with insufficient glycaemic control on insulin for whom metformin is inappropriate because of contraindications or intolerance (see section 4. 4). After initiation of therapy with pioglitazone, patients should be reviewed after three to six months to assess adequacy of response to treatment (e. g. reduction in HbA1c). In patients who fail to show an adequate response, pioglitazone should be discontinued. In light of potential risks with prolonged therapy, prescribers should confirm at subsequent routine reviews that the benefit of pioglitazone is maintained (see section 4. 4).

C19H20N2O3S.HCL

392.9

392.096

C, 58.08; H, 5.39; Cl, 9.02; N, 7.13; O, 12.22; S, 8.16

112529-15-4

Pioglitazone;111025-46-8

60560

White to off-white solid powder

1.26 g/cm3

575.4ºC at 760 mmHg

193-194ºC

301.8ºC

0mmHg at 25°C

1.64

4.29

93.59

2

5

7

26

466

0

GHUUBYQTCDQWRA-UHFFFAOYSA-N

InChI=1S/C19H20N2O3S.ClH/c1-2-13-3-6-15(20-12-13)9-10-24-16-7-4-14(5-8-16)11-17-18(22)21-19(23)25-17;/h3-8,12,17H,2,9-11H2,1H3,(H,21,22,23);1H

5-[[4-[2-(5-ethylpyridin-2-yl)ethoxy]phenyl]methyl]-1,3-thiazolidine-2,4-dione;hydrochloride

2934.99.9001

Powder      -20°C    3 years

                     4°C     2 years

In solvent   -80°C    6 months

                  -20°C    1 month

注意： 请将本产品存放在密封且受保护的环境中，避免吸湿/受潮。

Room temperature (This product is stable at ambient temperature for a few days during ordinary shipping and time spent in Customs)

配方 1 中的溶解度: ≥ 2.5 mg/mL (6.36 mM) (饱和度未知) in 10% DMSO + 40% PEG300 + 5% Tween80 + 45% Saline (这些助溶剂从左到右依次添加，逐一添加), 澄清溶液。
例如，若需制备1 mL的工作液，可将100 μL 25.0 mg/mL澄清DMSO储备液加入到400 μL PEG300中，混匀；然后向上述溶液中加入50 μL Tween-80，混匀；加入450 μL生理盐水定容至1 mL。
*生理盐水的制备：将 0.9 g 氯化钠溶解在 100 mL ddH₂O中，得到澄清溶液。

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配方 2 中的溶解度: ≥ 2.5 mg/mL (6.36 mM) (饱和度未知) in 10% DMSO + 90% (20% SBE-β-CD in Saline) (这些助溶剂从左到右依次添加，逐一添加), 澄清溶液。
例如，若需制备1 mL的工作液，可将 100 μL 25.0 mg/mL澄清DMSO储备液加入900 μL 20% SBE-β-CD生理盐水溶液中，混匀。
*20% SBE-β-CD 生理盐水溶液的制备（4°C，1 周）：将 2 g SBE-β-CD 溶解于 10 mL 生理盐水中，得到澄清溶液。

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配方 3 中的溶解度: ≥ 2.5 mg/mL (6.36 mM) (饱和度未知) in 10% DMSO + 90% Corn Oil (这些助溶剂从左到右依次添加，逐一添加), 澄清溶液。
例如，若需制备1 mL的工作液，可将 100 μL 25.0 mg/mL 澄清 DMSO 储备液加入到 900 μL 玉米油中并混合均匀。

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请根据您的实验动物和给药方式选择适当的溶解配方/方案：
1、请先配制澄清的储备液(如：用DMSO配置50 或 100 mg/mL母液(储备液));
2、取适量母液，按从左到右的顺序依次添加助溶剂，澄清后再加入下一助溶剂。以 下列配方为例说明 (注意此配方只用于说明，并不一定代表此产品 的实际溶解配方):
10% DMSO → 40% PEG300 → 5% Tween-80 → 45% ddH2O (或 saline);
假设最终工作液的体积为 1 mL, 浓度为5 mg/mL: 取 100 μL 50 mg/mL 的澄清 DMSO 储备液加到 400 μL PEG300 中，混合均匀/澄清；向上述体系中加入50 μL Tween-80，混合均匀/澄清；然后继续加入450 μL ddH2O (或 saline)定容至 1 mL；
3、溶剂前显示的百分比是指该溶剂在最终溶液/工作液中的体积所占比例;
4、 如产品在配制过程中出现沉淀/析出，可通过加热(≤50℃)或超声的方式助溶;
5、为保证最佳实验结果，工作液请现配现用！
6、如不确定怎么将母液配置成体内动物实验的工作液，请查看说明书或联系我们;
7、 以上所有助溶剂都可在 Invivochem.cn网站购买。